How Did We Get Here?
From Byzantium to Boston
Chapter Three
Mongols, Mansa Musa, and More
From Byzantium to Boston
Chapter Three
Mongols, Mansa Musa, and More
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3.1 Geography of Asia
From the Ural Mountains in the west, to the Pacific Ocean in the east, Asia is the largest continent and also is home to the most people. In fact, the largest country in terms of land size, Russia, is mostly in Asia, west of the Ural Mountains. This is ironic, since most people consider Russia a European country. The two most populated countries also lie in Asia, India and China. Since it is such a large continent, there are many different geographical points that can be pointed out. One of these is the Indian subcontinent. Scientists believe that continental drift caused the tectonic plate that the country of India sits upon to crashed into the tectonic plate of Asia. The collision caused both plates to move upward creating high mountain ranges that serves as a border between the subcontinent and the rest of Asia. Two of the most famous of these are the Hindu Kush in the west and the largest of all mountain ranges, the Himalayas in the east. The Himalayas has the tallest mountain peak in the world, Mount Everest. Mountain passes allow traders and travelers to reach the Indian subcontinent by land, one of the most famous of these is the Khyber Pass. |
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The height of the Himalayas create several weather
situations for the people of India. Monsoons, or seasonal winds, bring water in from the Indian Ocean. As the storm reaches the height of the mountains, their moisture is released and precipitation falls to the earth. The wind continues to the other side, but it is now dry. This is called a rain shadow. The rain shadow creates two vastly different events for the people of the subcontinent. The first is the torrential rain that cannot go past the mountains so falls on the people of India. Also, since the mountains are the source of many rivers in the region, they become begin to overflow their banks creating floods. |
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The other situation created by the rain shadow is the opposite situation for those on the other side of the mountains, arid conditions. One of the world’s great deserts, the Gobi, is created by the rain shadow events. Many rivers flow out of the Himalayas as stated before. The Indus and Ganges flow down through the subcontinent of India, but the Irr awaddy and Mekong Rivers, that empty out into the seas of southeast Asia, also find their source in the mountains of the Himalayas. Southeast Asia, including the modern day countries of Vietnam and Cambodia are in a rainforest biome. Also, there are several countries in southeast Asia, such as Malaysia and Indonesia, that not only have rainforests, but whose boundaries spread over a chain of islands, or archipelago. As you look to the northeast, you will notice other countries that are also archipelagos. As one moves to north reaches of the continent, a band of frozen land known as tundra will appear near the Arctic Circle. Begin coming south, and the land will begin to be filled with coniferous trees and a taiga biome will develop. Eventually you will notice a steppe, or a grassland plain without many trees that stretches from China to Hungary running through Mongolia and many parts of Central Asia. From the steppes, one of the greatest group of conquerors the world would ever know rose to power, the Mongols.
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3.2 Genghis Khan and the RIse of the Mongols The Mongols were one of the nomadic tribes that lived on the Mongolian steppes. Due to the steppes being arid, they traveled in small family groups as they searched for water for their livestocks. They lived in large tent like structures that we call yurts, but they referred to as ger, or home. Yurts could be set up or taken down within two hours and placed on a camel or yak. Being nomadic, the Mongols were adept horsemen as they made their way moving their herds along the grasslands and since they lived on open lands that allowed them room to breed many horses. |
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Before the time of Mongolian conquests, the region was dominated by the Chinese, who maintained their power by encouraging the different Mongolian tribes to fight against each other. One of the Mongols rivals on the steppes were the Tartars. About the year 1160, a young boy was born to a Mongol chieftain, his name was Temujin. When he was nine, his father was poisoned by food offered by the Ta rtars. Temujin’s father’s tribe refused to listen to such a young boy, and abandoned him and his family. Temujin plotted revenge and through negotiations and force, united the Mongol tribes and defeated the Tartars, killing all men, women, and children over a certain age.
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After the unification, Temujin was given the title Genghis Khan, or “Lord of All”. He then turned his attentions toward the Chinese, and invaded northern China. (It wouldn’t be until the death of Genghis Khan that the Chinese would be defeated.) Genghis also moved westward conquering lands in Afghanistan, northern India, and even Russia, the doorstop of Europe. He conquered more land in about 25 years than the Roman Empire did in 400.
Genghis was known for being a ruthless leader. As a youth he even killed his brother for taking one of the birds he had hunted. Many cities would surrender to the advancing Mongol armies without a fight because they knew of the stories of how the Mongols ransacked cities and killed all its inhabitants.
Genghis was known for being a ruthless leader. As a youth he even killed his brother for taking one of the birds he had hunted. Many cities would surrender to the advancing Mongol armies without a fight because they knew of the stories of how the Mongols ransacked cities and killed all its inhabitants.
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3.3 The Ways of Genghis Khan
The Mongols had some advantages over the people they were attacking. Since they were nomads, they were used to riding horseback. The Mongol cavalry could travel further distances than others of that day. They also had many horses, which allowed them to have more cavalry than their opponents. They had a type of stirrup that allowed them to turn in the saddle in the direction they needed to fire. The bows they used were a formed from a composite of wood, bone, and sinew, which made them strong and accurate. |
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Genghis Khan also had a keen mind for organization. He increased the number of his troops by accepting soldiers from the othe r tribes of the steppes. Instead of creating fighting units that were made up of members of the same tribe, the squads were made up of people from different tribes. In this way he broke down tribal tensions. He then organized his men into groups of 10. The smallest fighting group had 10 men and 10 of these groups formed a platoon of 100. Eventually, it would work its way up to battalions of 10 platoons, and division of 10 battalions. A group of divisions were called a horde. Arranging his military in this way allowed Genghis flexibility. He could attack as one large group or split his army to attack from different directions or perform different functions.
Genghis also set up a meritocracy system within the ranks of his military. Instead of employing the practice of advancing people in rank because they were members of the elite, ruling families, he moved warriors to high ranking positions because they demonstrated leadership skills on the field of battle. He gave generous pieces of land to his generals for their mastery on the field. In this way he unified the non-ruling members of the Mongolian tribes and crushed the old clan system. |
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3.4 The Mongolian Empire
When Genghis Khan died, he was buried in a secret location. In order to protect his secret, all the men who were part of the funeral procession were murdered. He was followed in leadership by his son, who began to set up an orderly system of ruling his empire by creating a bureaucracy (people whose jobs it is to make sure the government runs). He also continued conquests, leading forces as far east as Hungary. His death possibly saved Europe from conquest as the Mongol forces retreated back to Mongolia approve a new “Khan”. His son became the new Khan and he conquered Persia (modern day Iran) and Korea. Another descendant of Genghis defeated the Abassids and took Baghdad. |
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The Khan many have heard of before is Kublai Khan, another grandson of Genghis Khan. Kublai completed the conquest of China and created the Yuan Dynasty. He also spent much time and money attempting to take over Japan and Vietnam. Many stories of Kublai’s empire came back to Europe through the stories written by a trader that spent about 20 years with the Khan. His name was Marco Polo, who inspired European explorers such as Columbus (as well as a favorite pool side game).
Kublai Khan was the last of the great khans over all the Mongols. Much like Alexander the Great’s Macedonian Empire split into to three after his death, the Mongol Empire split apart its power. The Ilkhanids defeated the Islamic Arab Abassid Empire and took control of Persia (now Iran). The Golden Horde took over parts of Russia and attacked and threatened other areas of eastern Europe such as Poland and Hungary. The original Russian capital was Kiev, but it was forced to move to Moscow due to Mongol advance. It is believed that the the control and pressure the Mongols placed on these areas of Europe delayed the cultural and technological advancement that was being experienced in western Europe since people and resources were being used to fend off the Golden Horde. |
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As the Mongol Empire was losing its power, some sought to maintain the prestige of being the leader of the Mongols. One such leader was Tamerlane who lived in the 1300’s. Since he was not a descendant of Genghis Khan, he could not be proclaimed a Khan. He still desired to re-establish the Mongolian Empire. He used the Islamic faith as a unifying force. One of things he did during his reign was to persecute the Christian population that had existed in what was known as the Church of the East. Once thriving, the numbers of Christians in Persia steeply declined afterwards.
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Tamerlane’s empire stretched from the Turkish border to the Chinese. It quickly evaporated after his death. One of his descendants founded the Mughal Empire that took over India in the 1500’s. The Mughals were from Central Asia, but they took title of Khan and proclaimed themselves Mongol conquerors but were more closely related to Tamerlane. The great mausoleum one of their leaders built for his deceased wife is known throughout the world as the Taj Mahal. The Mughals had converted to Islam, and those promoted that religion in the heavily Hindu area of India. The tension between these two religions can be seen to this day through the rivalry of Hindu majority India and Islamic majority Pakistan on the subcontinent. The empire lasted until the British took control of India in the mid 1800’s
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3.5 The Mongolian Legacy
The Mongols should be recognized for several reasons. First, they controlled the largest land empire in history. They often won battles when they were outnumbered. They exhibited expertise on horses that gave them advantages of speed and maneuverability against their opponents. Since they were nomadic and not city dwellers, woman were needed to work along side of men in order for their society to work. Sometimes, this included fighting along side the men. Also, the Mongols, who themselves were animists, allowed for a variety of religions to exists together in their empire.
The Mongols should be recognized for several reasons. First, they controlled the largest land empire in history. They often won battles when they were outnumbered. They exhibited expertise on horses that gave them advantages of speed and maneuverability against their opponents. Since they were nomadic and not city dwellers, woman were needed to work along side of men in order for their society to work. Sometimes, this included fighting along side the men. Also, the Mongols, who themselves were animists, allowed for a variety of religions to exists together in their empire.
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They were also known for their brutality in combat. It is estimated that they killed about 50 million people. The population of China was cut in half. By laying waste to many cities, they destroyed the culture or slowed down the advancement of culture and technology in many areas. |
They used biological warfare against walled cities, as they catapulted dead bodies over the walls to spread disease in the city. In a city on the Crimean Peninsula on the Black Sea in 1347, the Mongols sent people who had d ied from the Black Plague over the walls. Traders from the city of Genoa in Italy escaped the city, but carried the Black Plague back with them as they landed in Sicily, and the plague spread north into Europe. (Also, rats that were carrying the flea that spread the plague, were unintentionally transported along trade routes as well)
The map of the world changed also. Genghis Khan had many wives, and lots of children. It is estimated today that .5% of the world’s population are descendant Genghis Khan. Mongol advances chased the Iranian people into Persia and the Ottoman Turks into Anatolia. In Russia, the most powerful city became Moscow, and when Ivan III refused to submit to the Golden Horde in 1480, it led to beginning of the power of the Czars (Emperors) in Russia that lasted until 1918.
The map of the world changed also. Genghis Khan had many wives, and lots of children. It is estimated today that .5% of the world’s population are descendant Genghis Khan. Mongol advances chased the Iranian people into Persia and the Ottoman Turks into Anatolia. In Russia, the most powerful city became Moscow, and when Ivan III refused to submit to the Golden Horde in 1480, it led to beginning of the power of the Czars (Emperors) in Russia that lasted until 1918.
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The Mongols weren’t always victorious. In 1274, after conquering Korea, Kublai Khan sent a group of soldiers on ships to attack Japan. A storm destroyed a section of his fleet and the invasion was abandoned. The Japanese celebrated and declared the spirits of the winds, or kamikaze, had saved them.
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The great wealth of the Mongols came from protecting trade that flowed between the east and west. The Yuan, the Mongols in China, posted soldiers on the Great Wall in order to keep traders on the roads below safe. For the Mongol, the necessity to keep trade flowing was already established . As nomadic people, the Mongols needed to depend on city dwellers for finished goods. They re-established the Silk Road and the risk to traders traveling along it was greatly lowered during the days of the Mongols. Although the Mongols did tax the t raders using their roads (for their protection), they did not restrict trade, setting up a free trade zone from the Pacific to the Mediterranean. As the goods of the east, such as silk and porcelain (or what we call “China”) made it to Europe, the demand for these items intensified, encouraging enterprising individuals to seek out different ways to get the goods to the markets of Europe The Mongols in China (the Yuan Dynasty) helped to encourage trade by the establishment of paper currency that was backed up a certain value of gold.
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3.6 Meanwhile in Africa
The great French historian Fernand Braudel said, "In understanding Black Africa, geography is more important than history." Much of Africa's history was in fact shaped by its geography. Almost every great city in the world has arisen on navigable waterways -- and such waterways are more scarce in Africa than in any other continent. An aircraft carrier can dock on the Hudson River in midtown Manhattan but there is not a single river where that is possible on the vast continent of Africa, which is larger than Europe or North America. Even smaller boats can travel only a limited distance on most African rivers because of cascades and waterfalls. Most of the continent is more than 1,000 feet above sea level and more than half of Africa is more than 2,000 feet above sea level. That means its rivers and stream must plunge down from those heights on their way to the sea. -Thomas Sowell, American Economist, The Tragedy of Africa Part II |
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Africa is the second largest continent in both size and population. For the people of the past, it also contained ample supplies of ivory, salt, iron, gold, and other resources. Its size provided foreign traders with a market to sell their goods, and the resources found in Africa were items desired by the people of other lands. Africa is connected to the Levant at the Sinai Peninsula giving it a land connection to Islamic empires of the Middle East (which in itself served as a gateway to the riches of the Far East). Its northern shores run along the Mediterranean Sea, allowing European traders easy access to Africa’s wealth, if it wasn’t for the difficulties that lie within Africa’s geography. |
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The first difficulty is the vastness of the Sahara Desert, making land travel to the southern parts of the continent arduous. Camels became important pack animals in this region due to their ability to travel great distances with little water. Another problem facing African traders is the lack of navigable rivers. If you travel on the rivers you may face steep drops and surges such as waterfalls and cataracts. One of the reason for these plunges on the eastern coast of Africa is the Great Rift Valley, created by the movement of tectonic plates. This seemingly ripping of the earth’s surface creates escarpments, or steep cliffs facing one another . The lack of navigable rivers make sending and receiving trade into the interior of the continent difficult.
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Despite its size, Africa has less coastline and natural harbors then Europe, the second smallest continent. Natural harbors typically provide ships with protection from storms because they are almost surrounded by land which serves as barrier to wind and waves, as they break on the land before they reach the ships. Also, the interior of Africa has thick jungles, or rainforests, that hinders land travel into the interior. Also it is the home of many diseases, including sleeping sickness, caused by a parasite and spread by the bite of the tsetse fly. Also, malaria, spread by mosquitos, is a problem in Africa.
The first difficulty is the vastness of the Sahara Desert, making land travel to the southern parts of the continent arduous. Camels became important pack animals in this region due to their ability to travel great distances with little water. Another problem facing African traders is the lack of navigable rivers. If you travel on the rivers you may face steep drops and surges such as waterfalls and cataracts. One of the reason for these plunges on the eastern coast of Africa is the Great Rift Valley, created by the movement of tectonic plates. This seemingly ripping of the earth’s surface creates escarpments, or steep cliffs facing one another . The lack of navigable rivers make sending and receiving trade into the interior of the continent difficult.
Despite its size, Africa has less coastline and natural harbors then Europe, the second smallest continent. Natural harbors typically provide ships with protection from storms because they are almost surrounded by land which serves as barrier to wind and waves, as they break on the land before they reach the ships. Also, the interior of Africa has thick jungles, or rainforests, that hinders land travel into the interior. Also it is the home of many diseases, including sleeping sickness, caused by a parasite and spread by the bite of the tsetse fly. Also, malaria, spread by mosquitos, is a problem in Africa.
The first difficulty is the vastness of the Sahara Desert, making land travel to the southern parts of the continent arduous. Camels became important pack animals in this region due to their ability to travel great distances with little water. Another problem facing African traders is the lack of navigable rivers. If you travel on the rivers you may face steep drops and surges such as waterfalls and cataracts. One of the reason for these plunges on the eastern coast of Africa is the Great Rift Valley, created by the movement of tectonic plates. This seemingly ripping of the earth’s surface creates escarpments, or steep cliffs facing one another . The lack of navigable rivers make sending and receiving trade into the interior of the continent difficult.
Despite its size, Africa has less coastline and natural harbors then Europe, the second smallest continent. Natural harbors typically provide ships with protection from storms because they are almost surrounded by land which serves as barrier to wind and waves, as they break on the land before they reach the ships. Also, the interior of Africa has thick jungles, or rainforests, that hinders land travel into the interior. Also it is the home of many diseases, including sleeping sickness, caused by a parasite and spread by the bite of the tsetse fly. Also, malaria, spread by mosquitos, is a problem in Africa.
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3.7 African Empires
Wealthy city states began to emerge on the eastern coast of Africa thanks to trade across the Red Sea as well as the Indian Ocean. One of the early powers in eastern Africa was Axum, located in modern day Ethiopia. Axum’s wealth came from controlling trade on the Red Sea. Axum was trading with world powers such as the Byzantine and Persian empires. Possibly due to these contacts, the Christian religion spread south of the Sahara Desert and it became a Christian nation. This can be seen today with several old churches still survive, including a church built into the rocks at Lalibela. As the power of Abassid empire out of Baghdad spread, so did their control over the Red Sea trade, weakening Axum. |
Both Arab Muslims and Persian Muslims brought not just goods from their lands but their religious faith as well. The cultural mixing of the African people (mostly the Bantu people) with the Persians and Arabs created what we call the Swahili culture and language that is popular on the east coast of Africa.
One of the greatest of these cities was on the island off the coast of modern day Tanzania, called Kilwa. It was a middle man in the trading process. Traders from the interior would bring the riches of Africa’s interior to Kilwa in exchange for goods that were coming from Asia including porcelain and spices. The great world traveler Ibn Battuta describes the beauty of the city, including its palace and one of the oldest standing mosques in Africa that at the time was made of coral stone.
One of the greatest of these cities was on the island off the coast of modern day Tanzania, called Kilwa. It was a middle man in the trading process. Traders from the interior would bring the riches of Africa’s interior to Kilwa in exchange for goods that were coming from Asia including porcelain and spices. The great world traveler Ibn Battuta describes the beauty of the city, including its palace and one of the oldest standing mosques in Africa that at the time was made of coral stone.
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Gold was a valuable resource that came from mines in the interior of the continent. Among the powerful cities that made it money from that mining is the mysterious city of Great Zimbabwe. All we have remaining of this city are the remains of an empty city surrounded by impressive walls for the time, and buildings made of granite. The people of Great Zimbabwe did not have a written language nor did they leave an oral history, so we do not know much of its story, especially the answer to the question, “What happened?”.
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In the western side of Africa were several important empires. As Islam was spreading its power and religion over North Africa, it’s traders were reaching the West African empire of Ghana around the year 700. What they found in Ghana was an abundance of gold.
Ghana power began to be challenged, most notably, according to an African epic, by Sundiata Keita, a member of the Mandinka tribe. He was born with a physical defect, and many underestimated him. Eventually, he established the Mali empire and took over Ghana also. He took the title mansa, which means “king of kings.” The great trade city of the Mali empire was Timbuktu. It was located at the convergence of several trade routes as well as the Niger River. The greatest ruler of the Mali empire was Mansa Musa. His great wealth came from the gold and salt mines in his empire. He both conquered territory and established centers of learning.
Ghana power began to be challenged, most notably, according to an African epic, by Sundiata Keita, a member of the Mandinka tribe. He was born with a physical defect, and many underestimated him. Eventually, he established the Mali empire and took over Ghana also. He took the title mansa, which means “king of kings.” The great trade city of the Mali empire was Timbuktu. It was located at the convergence of several trade routes as well as the Niger River. The greatest ruler of the Mali empire was Mansa Musa. His great wealth came from the gold and salt mines in his empire. He both conquered territory and established centers of learning.
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A devout Muslim, he left his empire for a year to go on the hajj. Without the courtesy of credit cards or ATM machines, Musa found it necessary to load up his caravan with an estimated 30,000 pounds of gold. He brought 500 slaves, and each of them carry a 5 pound staff of solid gold. As he traveled to Mecca, he gave to people in need and spent lavishly. The gold market in Cairo, Egypt declined due to the gold he gave away to the people of the city while there creating
inflation in the region’s economy and it did not recover for 20 years. It is said that this new found wealth was sent off in trade with Europe which helped to fund the Renaissance. Amazed at Mansa Musa wealth, Muslim scholars followed him back to Timbuktu. Engineers from the Arabian Peninsula went back with him and built two palaces for Mansa Musa, one in Timbuktu, and the other in the second largest city of Mali, Gao. One architect he met in Cairo, Abu Isaq es Shaeli, designed and oversaw the building of the Djunguereber Mosque which still stands today. |
3.8 African Culture
West Africa has a long history of oral tradition. The history and fables of the tribe was passed down from generation to generation by a storyteller known as a griot. The griot could spend hours each night around a fire telling the various stories that the tribe found important throughout the years. Masks are also an important aspect of the culture of West Africa. Made mostly of wood, they could also be made with ivory and metal. Feathers and/or valuable stones could adorn the created mask. The masks were representations of people, both alive or dead, and used in dances as the tribe sought to communicate with
the spirit world.
Before the arrival of Christians and Muslims, the traditional religious belief of many African tribes was the practice of animism. Animism is the belief that all things have a spirit; there is a spirt of the wind, spirit in animals, the spirit of the dead, and they all cancan influence daily events, etc. Due to this, the living needed to keep the spirits happy that may have included partaking in rituals. These rituals could include sacrifices, dances, or even the pouring of beverages on the ground to nourish the spirits.
West Africa has a long history of oral tradition. The history and fables of the tribe was passed down from generation to generation by a storyteller known as a griot. The griot could spend hours each night around a fire telling the various stories that the tribe found important throughout the years. Masks are also an important aspect of the culture of West Africa. Made mostly of wood, they could also be made with ivory and metal. Feathers and/or valuable stones could adorn the created mask. The masks were representations of people, both alive or dead, and used in dances as the tribe sought to communicate with
the spirit world.
Before the arrival of Christians and Muslims, the traditional religious belief of many African tribes was the practice of animism. Animism is the belief that all things have a spirit; there is a spirt of the wind, spirit in animals, the spirit of the dead, and they all cancan influence daily events, etc. Due to this, the living needed to keep the spirits happy that may have included partaking in rituals. These rituals could include sacrifices, dances, or even the pouring of beverages on the ground to nourish the spirits.
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Music is also an important aspect of African culture with an emphasis on percussion. Drums like the talking drum, which is shaped like an hour glass and the tone changed by the drummer but how tightly he/she holds the drum, and the boucarabou, which is a large drum that looks like a goblet (wide up top,, then it tapers to a smaller circumference before flaring out again just before the bottom) are popular. Also, the sound of seeds inside of gourds and influenced the creation of rain sticks. A popular musical style in Africa is known as call and response. In this style the leader sings or yells a line of the song and the audience responds back by repeating what was sung or said in the same tone. If you have ever gone to a football game, it is like when the cheerleaders yell to the crowd to repeat what they say.
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